Children if convicted of a capital crime, should be given the death Essay

Children if convicted of a capital crime, should be given the death penalty - Essay Example Historically, only 2 percent of capital punishment was juvenile execution since a large number of capital punishment imposed on children was either reversed or commuted. Often public opinion is considered, but â€Å"it is critical to distinguish between judging what is cruel and unusual punishment and what should become policy for such issues as capital punishment† (Kalbeitzer & Goldstein, 174). This paper focuses on different perspectives regarding this sensitive issue. Unlike many developed countries, United States is still embracing capital punishment for serious offenders. One major objective of juvenile criminal system â€Å"is to hold juvenile offenders accountable for delinquent acts while providing treatment, rehabilitative services, and programs designed to prevent future involvement in law-violating behavior† (Cothern, 1). The juvenile court was established in Chicago in 1889 in order to protect the juvenile offenders from receiving rough treatment in the criminal justice system. The juvenile court accepted that adults and children have different developmental capacities; therefore it advocated rehabilitation as alternative for capital punishment in case of children. However due to the growing number of young people getting involved in criminal activities in the turn of this century, the juvenile justice system has become more prone towards more rigid policies and stricter punishments. It now happens that children below the age of 1 8 who have committed capital crimes are subjected to the ultimate form of punishment like the death penalty or life imprisonment without parole. Supporters of juvenile death penalty see it as a way to deter other young people from committing similar kinds of crimes, and a way to maintain public safety (Cothern, 1-2). As of 2000, more than two-third of all independent states advocate death penalty. In 1999, 30 offenders were executed other than 3,500 others who were on death row. Even

Reflective Memo Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Reflective Memo - Essay Example This is why English 102 came to me as a joy as I learnt to write the various types of writing. One of the most interesting things I have learnt is writing a research proposal. I consider this very important because it will be of great use in my future academics as well as after college. I learnt the process of putting together a compelling research proposal which will easily get approval. I really hope this will help me in writing better papers in the future and that is will contribute to a productive academic life.. Learning to write a research proposal was probably one of the most interesting things which were very enlightening to me. I learnt that writing a research proposal is a process of expressing oneself and letting the public understand what is important about a certain research project. English 102 was also important in learning how to write an argumentative essay. I was able to learn how to write an effective and compelling argumentative essay, and I believe these skills will be important in especially after my days in college. I believe that the ability to achieve in life is based on one’s ability to look at issues and be able to convince people to see one’s point of view. English 102 was therefore a very important class because I leant how to write an argumentative essay, and this is a skill I believe will be important for me in my career later. This is especially because I am an idea person, and in most cases I find my position where i need to convince people why my point of view is important and probably best. Apart from argumentative writing, this class important in learning other important issues in written communication. I definitely consider myself a better communicator especially where written communication is concerned. Learning how to writ e evaluative essays for various artefacts such as movies sand other productions was interesting for me and I believe that it is helped with my analytical skills. Above everything else,

Children if convicted of a capital crime, should be given the death Essay

Children if convicted of a capital crime, should be given the death penalty - Essay Example Historically, only 2 percent of capital punishment was juvenile execution since a large number of capital punishment imposed on children was either reversed or commuted. Often public opinion is considered, but â€Å"it is critical to distinguish between judging what is cruel and unusual punishment and what should become policy for such issues as capital punishment† (Kalbeitzer & Goldstein, 174). This paper focuses on different perspectives regarding this sensitive issue. Unlike many developed countries, United States is still embracing capital punishment for serious offenders. One major objective of juvenile criminal system â€Å"is to hold juvenile offenders accountable for delinquent acts while providing treatment, rehabilitative services, and programs designed to prevent future involvement in law-violating behavior† (Cothern, 1). The juvenile court was established in Chicago in 1889 in order to protect the juvenile offenders from receiving rough treatment in the criminal justice system. The juvenile court accepted that adults and children have different developmental capacities; therefore it advocated rehabilitation as alternative for capital punishment in case of children. However due to the growing number of young people getting involved in criminal activities in the turn of this century, the juvenile justice system has become more prone towards more rigid policies and stricter punishments. It now happens that children below the age of 1 8 who have committed capital crimes are subjected to the ultimate form of punishment like the death penalty or life imprisonment without parole. Supporters of juvenile death penalty see it as a way to deter other young people from committing similar kinds of crimes, and a way to maintain public safety (Cothern, 1-2). As of 2000, more than two-third of all independent states advocate death penalty. In 1999, 30 offenders were executed other than 3,500 others who were on death row. Even

Stress and burnout Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Stress and burnout - Research Paper Example Ayala (2002) further indicates that uncontrolled levels of stress can eventually lead to burnout that is detrimental to the overall productivity of employees in an organization. However, stress may be beneficial because it can lead to creativity and inventions at the workplace. Consequently, it is fundamental to discuss the effects of stress and burnout to an organization and its employees. According to Gryna (2004), burnout is a feeling that results from an extended period of stress. Continuous burnout has a hazardous effect that lowers the self-esteem of individuals while on duty. Employees begin disliking their pastime activities in the organizational context. Notably, burnout correlates with emotional instability highlighting the absence of zeal and enthusiasm. Gryna (2004) asserts that burnout is a condition that arises when an individual lacks the motivation to undertake duty. It is equally attributable to prolonged suffering. Clinically, it is complex to guesstimate the level of employee burnout. Problems associated with stress and burnout to the organization One of the major problems associated with stress and burnout is the employees incapability to produce quality results as they did in the past (Ayala, 2002). Consequently, both stress and burnout are the main inhibitors of success to organizations. These two attributes contribute to huge losses to organizations annually. Gryna (2004) affirms that organizations incur losses because of the increased levels of stress among its staff. The most widespread loss is the reduction in the level of employee’s productivity in the organization. Subsequently, stressed employees exude low morale when undertaking duties and obligations. Lack of confidence contributes to their dismal performance at work because strained employees perform poorly. According to Gryna (2004), burnout increases the rates of turnover of employees; thus, increasing the costs required to run operations in an organization. This is beca use an organization will have to incur costs when recruiting new staff to continue with operations. Moreover, organizations will have to invest in training new employees before entrusting them with duties. High turnover due to burnout affects the employees’ loyalty who may feel neglected by the management (Gryna, 2004). This will make it difficult for them to focus on organizational growth. Interestingly, employees in organizations attribute stress to several to harsh working conditions. Problems associated with stress and burnout to the employees According to Arnold, Demerouti & Wilmar (2005), burnout affects employees’ attitude leading to the deterioration of an individual’s health. Subsequently, burnout leads to financial losses. For example, an employee experiencing burnout is prone to commit errors while on duty. Additionally, there are high chances that conflict can arise in an organization when employees experiencing burnout. Stress and burnout does not o nly affect the organization’s performance but they also affect the overall wellbeing of an individual. For instance, stressed employees exude negative emotions while on duty that may influence their lives. Moreover, an employee suffering from burnout is likely to develop chronic illness that may lead to depression. Arnold, Demerouti & Wilmar (2005) indicates that chronic ailments such as type diabetes have been associated with

University Degree No Guarantee of Employment Essay Example for Free

University Degree No Guarantee of Employment Essay KUALA LUMPUR, Oct 24 (Bernama) Fazren, 29, has a degree in transport management but has been working as an administrative assistant at a government agency over the past four years. I have applied for many jobs, both in the civil and private sectors. When I was offered the post of an administrative assistant (at a government agency) I did not hesitate to accept even though the post is for those with SPM qualification. Getting a job is quite difficult these days, the Pahang-born clerk told this writer here. Amran obtained 7As in the 2009 Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia (SPM) examination and is now working as a nurse in a government hospital after obtaining a diploma in nursing from a government nursing college this year. When queried on why he opted for a nursing course despite having good SPM results and the opportunity to study in a university, the 22-year-old Perlis-born Amran replied, It is for economic reasons. I opted not to go to university as I believe getting a job will be difficult even after I graduated with a university degree. But with a nursing diploma, a job will be waiting for me at any government hospital or other private hospitals. It is better to start working at a young age rather than waiting for many years in order to get a job, he said. Both Amran and Fazren (not their real names) are among many Malaysian job seekers who are not particular over the choice of employment as they believe that holding a university qualification does not guarantee them a salaried job. Unemployed graduates Last May, the Deputy Human Resource Minister Datuk Maznah Mazlan told Parliament that some 76,200 graduates in the country were unemployed. She said that the Human Resource Ministry was trying to resolve the growing rate of unemployment in the country. In 2010, the number of unemployed graduates was 42,955 or 24. 62 per cent of 174,439 Malaysian graduates. There are 20 public universities (IPTA) in Malaysia including Universiti Malaya (UM), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM), Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM) and Universiti Teknologi Mara (UiTM). The country also has 60 private higher education institutions (IPTS) like Universiti Teknologi Petronass (UTP), Universiti Multi Media (MMU) and Universiti Tenaga Nasional (Uniten). Bachelors degree According to the Higher Education Ministry, universities, university colleges and polytechnics nationwide produced 184,581 graduates last year and 44,391 or 24 per cent of them were unemployed. Based on statistics, Arts and Social Sciences graduates have the highest number of unemployment numbers, constituting 44. 5 per cent or 19,784 from the total number of unemployed graduates. Next were graduates from technical fields where 12,321 were employed, constituting 27. 7 per cent of the total number of unemployed graduates. Science graduates came in third with 7,321 which accounted for 16. 49 per cent of the total number of unemployed graduates. The ministry said that a total of 21,248 bachelors degree holders were still unemployed whereas diploma holders have the lowest unemployment rate at 3 per cent. According to industry sources, many graduates are still unemployed because the courses they studied at university do not have a wide market. Poor communication skills Human science lecturer Amien Iskandar said that one of the reasons why graduates could not secure jobs was that their qualifications do not meet market demands and requirements, thus rendering them not marketable. Another factor is the bad command of English. A good command of the English language could help graduates secure employment, especially in the private sector. To this end, there is a need to ensure that these graduates are equipped with the necessary skills so that they could be hired for employment after graduating, he said. Amien also cited poor communication skills, wrong work attitude and unrealistic expectations as other barriers in gaining employment. If you have a good command of English but cannot communicate with others due to poor attitude, (then) you may also find difficulties in being employed, he explained. Lack of technical training According to the Federation of Malaysian Manufacturers (FMM), the lack of industrial training is also among the factors why graduates are unemployed. Meanwhile, the Higher Education Ministry Student Development and Affairs Director, Prof Dr Mohd Fauzi Ramlan was reported by the media as saying that other factors that compounded the issue are low problem-solving skills, tendency to switch jobs or job-hopping and lack of self-confidence. He called on graduates to improve their command of the English language to boost their communication skills. (Can they expect to be employed) if they fail to convince their prospective employers on their potential, (then) their chances of getting hired are very slim, he was reported as saying. Mohd Fauzi also advised graduates to drop the negative attitude of preferring to gain jobs in their home towns. http://www. mysinchew. com/node/79072.

Communication Skills in Social Work | Essay

Communication Skills in Social Work | Essay In the context of Social Work practice learning  (Childrens Services Assessment Team)  and the social work role discuss a particular piece of  practice, giving consideration to the skills and models of communication and empowerment that were used. Introduction Organized under the United Kingdom’s Department of Health, Children’s Services represents a division of Social Care which is administered in each region under the auspices of the Children’s Commissioner (Children Act 2004). Children’s Services is committed to the safeguarding and rights of children through high quality services over a broad array of provisions. The Children’s Assessment Team under the Department of Health has the responsibility for the handling of children and their families who have benne either referred and or have contacted their respective Child Care agency (London Borough of Barking Dagenham, 2006). The preceding includes the offering of advice and help while ensuring that the correct decisions are rendered with regard to the urgency dictated by the circumstances along with the proper response level. The preceding represents an ‘assessment’ as carried out in each individual circumstance, which requires skills, communication and the powers to carried the aforementioned out. This examination shall look into a particular area of practice concerning Social Work in the Children’s Services Assessment Team, giving consideration to the skills, models of communication and empowerment involved. The Referral and Assessment aspect of Children’s Services represents one of the most important areas of the many services offered by this Department in that it is responsible for acting upon referrals concerning children and their families that are in need of assessment (Southwark Council, 2006). The Referral and Assessment Team provides intervention as well as support and is responsible for the initial intake process covering the assessment of need and urgency, prioritizing said cases on an individual basis (Barnett London Borough, 2006). One of the most important areas, which includes child protection, legal proceedings and that children in need are looked after, is the initial process which identifies a child in need as opposed to child protection (Wrexham County Borough, 2001). The manner in which the referral was initiated has a bearing upon the type of skill, communication and application of techniques involved. In this instance, this examination shall utilize the exampl e of an abused child that has been brought to the attention of Child Services through calls made by a concerned citizen, or other means. The data and information gathered in the initial contact, regarding the allegation, requires immediate follow up to assess the truthfulness of the allegation and thus whether further action is warranted (Barnett London Borough, 2006). Said referral can come from a number of sources, such as neighbors, teachers, school nurse, and other sources (Barnett London Borough, 2006). Once the process has been initiated the most important aspect entails the skills, and communication techniques employed. The core mission of all social work is the promotion of social justice through its practice (Healy, 1998, pp. 897-914). Within this framework, social workers are in a system that promotes collaborative approaches representing analysis and prioritization (Healy and Mulholland, 1998, pp. 3-27). Once the decision has been made to see the child in question, as a result of either the suspicion or proof regarding action being warranted, the skills in communication as well as observation come into play. Thompson (2003, pp. 10) advises that the importance of communication is that it permits us to transmit information from one person to another and it represents â€Å"†¦ a complex, multilevel event†. In communicating with children as well as adults, social workers need to be well versed in interaction that accompanies communication and contact, and the complexities entailed, as well as the messages on a verbal and non verbal plane (Thompson, 2003. pp. 10-12, 33 – 34, 182-18 3). In those instances where there is an absence of external physical evidence or medical examination, the social worker has to be able to ascertain from conversations and observations with the child as well as the adults involved regarding tone of voice, eye movements, reactions, and other behavior whether truthful replies are being given. The preceding represents areas that encompass theory as well as practice. Adams et al (1998, pp. 253-272) state that the context of social work has changed over the past twenty years as a result of new public management systems that have decreased the value of theory along with the value driven aspects involved in human social work. In the context of children’s services the Referral and Assessment Team intercede on behalf of the child through policy decisions and active support when the initial interview uncovers need, depending upon the circumstances. This aspect represents item number six under Article Two, General Function, of the Children Act 2004 (Children Act 2004). The Department of Health (2006) provides for advocacy safeguards for children to protect them from abuse as well as poor practice. This aspect provides for children themselves to be a part of the process, having and active voice that can be and is heard to participate in reaching determinations (Department of Health, 2006). Under provisions as set forth, the standards and core principles that children can expect are identified as (Department of Health, 2006): The role of children in advocacy, policy context, equal opportunities, confidentiality, publicity, accessibility, independence, complaints, procedures, and the management and governance of services The preceding along with empowerment provides the child with a real voice as well as organization that is committed to ensure their well being as found under the Children’s Services Regulations 2005 of the Children Act 2004 (Children’s Services Inspection Regulations, 2005). Through a formalized inspection, review and analysis process involving â€Å"†¦ two or more inspectorates and commissions, the process is ensured of impartiality as well as adequate oversight. Articles 2.3 under this provision sets forth â€Å"†¦ that relevant assessments, inspections, reviews, investigations and studies †¦ are conducted on cases. These measures are a part of the framework of checks and balances incorporated into the process for the safeguarding of the child who comes to the attention of Children’s Services. Empowerment also provides for the offering of assistance, counseling and advice to parents in need of help in order to safeguard a child’s well be ing. The formalized process sets forth specific guidelines in all of the indicated areas, as well as a broader scope for a matter of such national importance. Conclusion Owing to the sensitive nature of services involving children, specific case studies or references to such are not available, for the obvious reasons. Under the context of the Referral and Assessment Team of social work, a hypothetical example was used as the broad framework for the examination of practice learning and the social work role with consideration given to the skills and models of communication and empowerment. The Children Act 2004 and the Children’s Services Inspection Regulations, 2005 set forth specific procedures, guidelines and framework for the handling of child cases providing oversight safeguards through redundancy features. Each regional Council works in partnership with the departments of Education and Health, as well as other social work teams to â€Å"†¦ ensure the co-ordination of assessment of needs †¦Ã¢â‚¬  leading to the â€Å"†¦ formulation of individual care plans and support packages† (Beacon Council, 2006). The process of referral and assessment is conducted under procedures that are of course subject to the individual expertise levels of the interviewers and case workers. However the safeguards of a multi-level internal review and follow up process catches any potential instances whereby a child might slip through the system due to any number of reasons. As is the case with any process involving humans and organizations, there are those occasions when the system or the person fails, however, given the multi level review and follow up process, such mistakes do not last too long. Bibliography Adams, R., Dominelli, L., Payne, M. (1998) Social Work: Themes, Issues and Critical Debates. Houndsmills Macmillan Barnett London Borough (2006) Supporting Families Division. Retrieved on 10 December 2006 from http://www.barnet.gov.uk/index/health-social-care/children-and-family-care/supporting-families-division.htm Beacon Council (2006) Children and Families. Retrieved on 12 December 2006 from http://www.bexley.gov.uk/service/social/childrenandfamilies/disabilities.html Children Act (2004) Children Act 2004. Retrieved on 10 December 2006 from http://www.opsi.gov.uk/acts/acts2004/40031b.htm#1 Children’s Services Inspection Regulations (2005) Children’s Services Inspection Regulations. Retrieved on 12 December 2006 from http://66.218.69.11/search/cache?p=uk+children%27s+services+assessment+teamfr=yfp-t-501toggle=1ei=UTF-8u=www.dfes.gov.uk/consultations/downloadableDocs/Childrens%20Services%20Inspection%20Regulations%20Consultation%20Document%20-%20PDF.pdfw=uk+childrens+services+assessment+teamd=IY3kv5IFNg0Eicp=1.intl=us Department of Health (2006) Department of Health: Children’s Advocacy. Retrieved on 11 December 2006 from http://www.dh.gov.uk/Consultations/ResponsesToConsultations/ResponsesToConsultationsDocumentSummary/fs/en?CONTENT_ID=4017049chk=vFWybl Healy, K. (1998) Participation and Child Protection: The Importance of Context. Vol. 28. British Journal of Social Work Healy, K., Mulholland, J. 81998) Discourse analysis and activist social work: Investigating practice processes. Vol. 25, Number 3. Journal of Sociology and Social Welfare London Borough of Barking Dagenham (2006) Children’s Services Children’s Assessment Team. Retrieved on 10 December 2006 from London Borough of Barking Dagenham Southwark Council (2006) Children’s Services. Retrieved on 10 December 2006 from http://www.southwark.gov.uk/Uploads/FILE_10982.pdf Thompson, N. (2003) Communication and Language: A Handbook of Theory and Practice. Palgrave Macmillan Wrexham County Borough (2001) Assessment Framework for Children in Need and their families. September 2001. Wrexham Social Services Department, Directorate of Personal Services, Wrexham, United Kingdom Aquatic Plants: Rate Of Photosynthesis Aquatic Plants: Rate Of Photosynthesis Acid rain is a known effect of global warming, which has damaged many aquatic environments and aquatic plants throughout the world. This study investigates the effects of acid rain on an aquatic plants rate of photosynthesis. The research question is How does the change in pH of an elodeas habitat due to acid rain affect the plants rate of photosynthesis? Samples of elodea were placed into two acidic solutions, 0.01 Molar solution of nitric acid and 0.001 Molar solution of nitric acid, in a photosynthometer. The control group is water in the photosynthometer with a pH of 7. Each trial took 24 hours and the experiment was done in a high school chemistry lab near a window ledge, away from direct sunlight. After each 24 hour period, the amount of oxygen released by the plants is measured to determine the rate of photosynthesis. As the environment becomes more acidic, the elodea samples volume of oxygen release decreases. The average volume of oxygen release for the elodea samples in the control water group is 0.57 mL, 0.29 mL for the pH 4.0 group, and 0.15 for the pH 3.5 group. The results from this study suggest that there are big differences among the three groups and that acid rain negatively affects the rate of photosynthesis. 1.0 Introduction 1.1 Rationale of Study Nowadays, global warming has become a big issue on the forefront of environmental problems. Its not simply the devastation of rising temperatures all over the world but other effects as well which can be much more dangerous and harmful to the human race. One of these effects is the increase in the acidity of precipitation, or acid rain. At present, acid rain affects large parts of the United States and is especially noticeable near large cities. The annual acidity value averages at pH 4 but values as low as pH 2.1 have been observed. It is confirmed that the increased use of natural gas and development of factories have been associated with the increasing acidity of precipitation and thus, efforts had been made to rely on more clean, renewable energy sources and the development of air quality emission standards. However, not all the economic and ecological effects due to the introduction of strong acids into the natural systems are known and therefore, this study looks into one of it s many harmful effects, the acidification of freshwater ecosystems. Studies suggest that no matter how small the change in pH of any aquatic ecosystem is, large amounts of magnesium and calcium would still be lost in the vicinity affected by acid rain. As a result of the loss of these vital elements, the response and recovery of any aquatic ecosystem toward the decrease in acid deposition would be delayed significantly. Because of this, any further reduction in pH of the ecosystem will bring about exponential increases in damage to any living organism within the affected area. Just like how damage to the human immune system would lead to significant, exponentially increasing damage to the human body in the form of diseases, the damage done to the recovery mechanisms of an aquatic ecosystem due to acid rain opens up possibilities for catastrophes that could be of a far worse magnitude. One such possible disaster is the harming of aquatic plants rates of photosynthesis. Alongside the endangerment of the population of crustaceans, insects, and fish within the aquatic ecosystem, the damage done to the aquatic plants rates of photosynthesis such as Elodea Canadensiss, can be one of the worst possible effects of acid rain and global warming. This study is worthwhile in that plants are the basis of the food chain and any damage inflicted upon the process of photosynthesis in general would surely mean that our very own existence is in jeopardy. 1.2 Aim The aim of this paper is to study the effects of the change in pH of Elodea Canadensiss environment on the plants rate of photosynthesis. In a broader context, this study investigates the effects of acid rain on aquatic plants. Hence, the research question is: How does the change in pH of an elodeas freshwater habitat due to acid rain affect the plants rate of photosynthesis? The rate of photosynthesis is measured with a photosynthometer in which oxygen released from the elodea samples are collected under differing pH environments. The elodea samples are placed in differing solutions of nitric acid, which are used to simulate elodea living in freshwater habitats affected by acid rain. Because oxygen is a product of photosynthesis and is correlated to the rate of photosynthesis, oxygen is then collected from the various experimental groups. Most experiments that require the measurement of the rate of photosynthesis of a macrophyte determine the changes in oxygen concentration of the system in which the macrophyte is kept in and thus, this study is done in the most popular manner. The volume of oxygen collected from each group would then be analyzed to determine the optimal conditions for an aquatic plant to live in and the effects of acid rain on the rate of photosynthesis. 1.3 Acid Rain Because the value for unpolluted precipitation is officially set at pH 5.65, the same value as distilled water, acid rain is a term that describes rain with a pH of less than 5.6. Man-made emissions of sulfur and nitrogen pollutants had always been blamed as a major cause of acid rain but a genuine cause-effect relationship has never been determined. However, it is certain that sulfur and nitrogen compounds react with the atmosphere to produce acids that would lower the pH of precipitation. There are also many natural sources of these sulfur and nitrogen compounds. For example, approximately 50 percent of atmospheric nitrogen compounds are produced by lightning discharges, which may bring about acid rain. The real importance of studying acid rain though is to study its effects on the natural ecosystems. One such ecosystem that is affected greatly by acid rain is the aquatic ecosystem. The chemical composition of lakes is heavily influenced by precipitation and many studies have suggested that acid rain has caused lake acidification. Most importantly, the changes in pH of these ecosystems due to acid rain appeared to have damaged aquatic plants metabolism, causing a decline in primary productivity. Because these aquatic plant communities are primary producers, any damage done to their metabolism mechanisms (photosynthesis) can drastically reduce the food supply and energy flow within the affected ecosystem. Thus, acid rain has the potential to reduce the supply of minerals and nutrients and endanger the existence of all organisms within an ecosystem, especially aquatic ecosystems. 1.4 Marine Photosynthesis The metabolism of plants is commonly referred to as photosynthesis. Photosynthesis involves two kinds of processes, photochemical and enzymatical, meaning that the rate of photosynthesis is a function of irradiance and enzyme activity. No enzymes are involved in the photochemical process in which the plant absorbs light in the range of 350 and 700 nm in wavelength. In this process, chlorophyll molecules absorb light and excites electrons, which go through the electron transport and end up producing ATP and NADPH. As its name implies, the photochemical process involves light and is purely chemistry. The other process is the light-independent enzymatical process of the Calvin cycle. This process occurs after the light-dependent reaction for it requires the ATP and NADPH to reduce CO2 to carbohydrate. At the start of this process, six carbon dioxide molecules attach to six 5-carbon ribulose biphosphate (RuBP) molecules to create six molecules of a 6-carbon compound. Each of these 6-carbon compounds splits into two 3-carbon molecules called phosphoglycerate (PGA). This results in 12 PGA molecules. Energy from ATP and electrons from NADPH are then needed to reduce each of these PGA molecules into twelve G3P (glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate) molecules. Finally, two of these G3P molecules are used to form one glucose molecule and the remaining ten G3P are reassembled into RuBP molecules. Marine Photosynthesis also requires CO2 to start and this CO2 is acquired when CO2 is dissolved in water. This process is represented by the following formulas: CO2 + H2O ßà   H2CO3 CO2 + OH- ßà   HCO3- The dissolved CO2 in the water can either make the water increase or decrease in pH depending on the pH, temperature, and salinity of the environment. The concentrations of carbonic acid (H2CO3) and bicarbonate (HCO3-) in the aquatic environment form a complex equilibrium, which is needed to sustain optimal living conditions for its inhabitants; the two compounds play a vital biochemical role in the pH buffering system, which strongly affects photosynthetic organisms. 1.5 Elodea Canadensis Elodea Canadensis is an aquatic vascular plant that spends its entire life cycle under the surface of a body of water. It is a perennial with a flexible branches stem and fibrous roots. Its leaves do not have petioles and they are always in groups of three to seven spread out evenly along the entire length of the stem. The species of Elodea Canadensis is commonly known as waterweed and is abundant in North and South America. However, there are 17 species of the genus Elodea and these plants are common throughout the world with use as an aquarium plant. Its use in science experiments is fairly common as well due to its strongly photosynthetic, dense chloroplast structure. When exposed to a strong light source, the oxygen bubbles given off by the plant is clearly visible. Another reason for its use in science experiments is that it is able to live enough after being cut into smaller strands to be experimented on. 2.0 Variables 2.1 Independent Variable The elodea plants are placed in 2 different nitric acid solutions of varying pH and molarity. Strands of elodea with 10 leaves each are subjected to either a 0.001 molar solution of nitric acid with a pH of 4.0 or a .01 molar solution of nitric acid with a pH of 3.5. The solution and elodea are placed into the barrel of the syringe in the photosynthometer. Litmus paper is used to measure the pH of the acid solutions. 2.2 Dependent Variable The rate of photosynthesis of the elodea samples are affected by the varying pH of the solutions they are subjected to. The rate of photosynthesis is indicated by the volume of oxygen given off by each 10 leaf elodea strand and collected in the photosynthometer over a 24 hour experiment period. 2.3 Control Variable The control variable is tap water with a pH of 7.0, a neutral solution, in the photosynthometer. It is used to determine whether or not the acidic solutions the elodea strands are tested in actually have an effect on the plants rates of photosynthesis as compared to a neutral aquatic environment. 2.4 Constants All trials are done in the same chemistry laboratory next to a window ledge, away from direct sunlight. The room and the solutions inside the syringe of the photosynthometer are kept at a constant 26.4 ° Celsius. Each elodea sample is a 10 leaf strand. The same volume of solution is used for every trial in the photosynthometer. 3.0 Procedures 3.1 Preparation before experimentation 3.1.1 Test Trials Before any definite procedure of experimentation is made, test trials needed to be done first in order to see which acid solutions would not kill elodea in a 24 hour period. Strands of elodea are placed in test tubes with 0.001 molar, 0.01 molar, and 0.1 molar nitric acid solutions and are labeled. By the end of the 24 hour period, the elodea in the test tubes with the 0.1 molar nitric acid solution died since the leaves lost all of their green color and oxygen bubbles were not released from the leaves even before the 24 hour period. This meant that the plant could not perform photosynthesis anymore and was dead. The other two elodea samples were alive and thus, the 0.001 molar and 0.01 molar nitric acid solutions were used for experimentation to mimic the effect of acid rain on an aquatic plants rate of photosynthesis. 3.1.2 Nitric Acid Solutions Preparation The 0.01 Molar solution of nitric acid is made by mixing 1 mL of a 1.0 Molar solution of nitric acid with 99 mL of tap water in a graduated cylinder. The tap water is measured with the graduated cylinder and a pipette is used to hold 1 mL of the 1.0 Molar solution of nitric acid. 1 Liter of a 0.001 Molar solution of nitric acid is prepared by mixing 1 mL of a 1.0 Molar solution of nitric acid with 999 mL of tap water in a liter plastic laboratory bottle. 1 Liter of this solution is made since it is more convenient to create a large volume of an acid solution with a low concentration than it is to create a small volume of a highly diluted acid solution. 3.1.3 Apparatus Preparation The photosynthometer is assembled by connecting a syringe to a graduated 1-cm3 pipette with a short length of rubber tubing. The length of the rubber tubing is arbitrary as long as it is tight enough to secure the syringe to the pipette, preventing any liquid from coming out of either the syringe or pipette. The apparatus is fixed in a vertical position with the test tube clamp and ring stand (Figure 1), using the test tube clamp on the syringe and connecting that to the ring stand. 3.2 Method for Experimentation with the Photosynthometer 3.2.1 Application of Elodea Sample and Solutions into the Photosynthometer Before experimentation, a sample of elodea is taken by cutting a strand of elodea with 10 leaves. The mass of the elodea is recorded and measured in order to look for patterns after experimentation. The plunger of the syringe is then removed and the elodea sample is placed into the barrel of the syringe. Since any liquid placed in the syringe with the plunger off will fall straight through and out the apparatus, the elodea sample is placed in the apparatus first before anything. 30 mL of the 0.001 Molar solution of nitric acid is then poured into the barrel of the syringe and the barrel is immediately sealed with the plunger to prevent any more liquid from leaving the apparatus. No matter what, some of the solution would still leave the apparatus with the plunger off. Therefore, 30 mL of the solution is used in the barrel so that any excess amount of the nitric acid solution could be expelled by pushing down on the plunger until 15 mL of the solution is left in the barrel of the syri nge. With the apparatus removed from the test tube clamp and the open end of the pippette pointing upwards, any trapped air inside the syringe and pipette is expelled by slowly and softyly pushing the plunger into the barrel until all of the trapped air expelled, making sure not to have any of the solution leave the pipette. 3.2.2 Maintaining Constants When the apparatus is placed back onto the test tube clamp and ring stand, the temperature of the nitric acid solution inside the barrel of the syringe is measured with an infrared thermometer and recorded. The temperature is measured to make sure that the temperature remains constant for all trials since temperature does affect the rate of photosynthesis. To maintain constant temperatures and weather conditions as well, experimentation is done in one room for all trials and begins at the same time of day. In my case, experimentation was done in the schools chemistry laboratory, which was kept at a constant 26.4 ° Celsius, at 16:00 US central time. 3.2.3 Data Collection The volume (the location of the meniscus) of the nitric acid solution in the pipette of the apparatus is measured and recorded. The time is measured and recorded as well. The elodea sample is left in the apparatus for 24 hours. After that time, the amount of oxygen the sample of elodea gave off is measured and recorded by looking at the location of the meniscus of the acid solution in the pipette. All experimental procedures are then repeated with the 0.01 Molar nitric acid solution and tap water instead of the 0.001 Molar nitric acid solution. Table 4 4.7 ANOVA test The ANOVA (Analysis of Variance) test is also used to further verify the difference of the results among the experimental groups. The result of this ANOVA test indicates whether the experimental variable (pH of the elodeas environment) causes significant difference on the elodeas rates of photosynthesis. Before the ANOVA test could be carried out, three assumptions are made: Observations are independent (the value of one observation is not correlated with the value of another observation). Observations in each group are normally distributed. Homogeneity of variances (the variance of each group is equal to the variance of any other group). The null hypothesis of this test is: there is no difference between the means of the different groups (pH 7.0, 4.0, and 3.5). Then, the statistic test is carried out to find the F ratio. F Ratio = Mean square between groups Mean square within groups If the computed F ratio is greater than the F critical value at the significance level of 0.05, the null hypothesis is rejected. 5.0 Conclusion Graph 1 shows that the mean volumes of oxygen release among all the groups had significant differences. The average volume of oxygen release for the pH 4.0 group is 0.29 mL, which is about half of the mean volume of oygen release for the control group, pH 7.0, of 0.57 mL. The mean volume of oxygen release for the pH 3.5 group is 0.15 which is about half of the mean volume of oxygen release of the pH 4.0 group as well. As shown in Graph 2, this trend is shown to be of an exponential decline in mean volume of oxygen release as pH increases; as the environment becomes more acidic, the mean volume of oxygen release declines more sharply. According to Table 3, the average volume of oxygen release of the pH 4.0 group differs from the control pH 7.0 group by 49%. The average volume of oxygen release for the pH 3.5 group differs from the control pH 7.0 group by 74%. These values are large and again emphasize the significant difference of the results of the experimental groups to those of the control group. According to Table 5, ANOVA test results, there is a significant difference between the mean volumes of oxygen release between the pH 7.0 and pH 4.0 groups, as well as the pH 7.0 and pH 4.0 groups. However, there is no significant difference between the results of the pH 4.0 and pH 3.5 groups. From the ANOVA test results, the hypothesis that the elodeas rate of photosynthesis would be harmed in more acidic environments is supported. A change from an environment of pH 7.0 to pH 4.0 would greatly reduce an elodea plants rate of photosynthesis while a change from an environment of pH 4.0 to pH 3.5 would not bring about a significant reduction in an elodea plants rate of photosynthesis. The standard devation values from table 4 state on average how far the data varies from the mean. For each group, the standard devation is relatively low comparedto the averages of each trial and thus, the data collected and the methods used to collect the data is very precise. Increasing the acidity of an environment results in a number of physical, chemical, and biological changes. A chemical change that could occur is the change in the availability of carbon. With the pH of the environment at slightly acidic levels, the amount of dissolved HCO3- in the water drops. This dissolved HCO3- in the water is the plants source of carbon used for photosynthesis and it is proven that aquatic plants have the best rate of photosynthesis in slightly alkaline environments due to the availability of carbon in the dissolved HCO3-. The lower pH levels in the environment also affect the enzymes in the cells of the plant. If pH levels drop low enough, enzymes such as RuBP used in the Calvin Cycle would shut off and would no longer carry out the chemical reactions needed for photosynthesis. Not only would the acid in the environment kill the enzymes but the acid would also destroy the plant proteins, lipids, and membranes, causing plant cells to malfunction and a major redu ction in the rate of photosynthesis. Specifically, the lowered pH of the environment causes alterations in the chlorophyll molecules, which are highly essential to the process of photosynthesis. 6.0 Evaluation and Suggestions Possible random errors include the inaccuracy of the solution molarity stated, mass stated, and volume of oxygen release stated. These random errors may be caused by the inaccuracy of the measuring equipment. The equipment such as graduated cylinders and pipettes are fairly accurate though to an extent. One possible systematic error could be the different masses of each elodea sample. The mass of each strand may affect the volume of oxygen released for mass may determine the amount of chloroplast in each sample. Since each elodea sample was cut from a larger strand, this cutting may also cut each samples life. With a samples life cut short, the volume of oxygen collected from this experimentation may not truly reflect how plants act outside of these laboratory conditions. Also, the worst source of error in measuring the rate of photosynthesis with a gas collection method may be the gas storage within the leaves. If some oxygen is stored in the leaves, the oxygen collected in the photosynthometer may not fully represent the samples true rates of photosynthesis in the tested environments. Some measures that could be taken to prevent these errors could be to use more accurate equipment and using plant samples of similar mass as well as number of leaves. Total Word Count: 3,002

Acid Rain :: essays research papers fc

Acid Rain INTRODUCTION: Acid rain is a great problem in our world. It causes fish and plants to die in our waters. As well it causes harm to our own race as well, because we eat these fish, drink this water and eat these plants. It is a problem that we must all face together and try to get rid of. However acid rain on it's own is not the biggest problem. It cause many other problems such as aluminum poisoning. Acid Rain is deadly. WHAT IS ACID RAIN? Acid rain is all the rain, snow, mist etc that falls from the sky onto our planet that contains an unnatural acidic. It is not to be confused with uncontaminated rain that falls, for that rain is naturally slightly acidic. It is caused by today's industry. When products are manufactured many chemicals are used to create it. However because of the difficulty and cost of properly disposing of these products they are often emitted into the atmosphere with little or no treatment. The term was first considered to be important about 20 years ago when scientists in Sweden and Norway first believed that acidic rain may be causing great ecological damage to the planet. The problem was that by the time that the scientist found the problem it was already very large. Detecting an acid lake is often quite difficult. A lake does not become acid over night. It happens over a period of many years, some times decades. The changes are usually to gradual for them to be noticed early. At the beginning of the 20th century most rivers/lakes like the river Tovdal in Norway had not yet begun to die. However by 1926 local inspectors were noticing that many of the lakes were beginning to show signs of death. Fish were found dead along the banks of many rivers. As the winters ice began to melt off more and more hundreds upon hundreds more dead fish (trout in particular) were being found. It was at this time that scientist began to search for the reason. As the scientists continued to work they found many piles of dead fish, up to 5000 in one pile, further up the river. Divers were sent in to examine the bottom of the rivers. What they found were many more dead fish. Many live and dead specimens were taken back to labs across Norway. When the live specimens were examined they were found to have very little sodium in their blood. This is typical a typical symptom of acid poisoning. The acid had entered the gills of